Retreat Reflection

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Corwin Corporation Analysis Essay

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The purpose of this of document is to analyze the factors that led to the Corwin’s project failure. Corwin Corporation’s relationship with a good customer, Peters Company was strained because of Corwin’s failure to follow their management policies. A fixed-price contract was signed without proper risk analysis, the was no evidence of a project plan and the situation was made worse by the lack of support from management. This report discusses the failures in project selection, lack of executive support and communication breakdown, all of which lead to the project being terminated by the client. INTRODUCTION Corwin Corporation accepted a project which was outside their scope of work from Peters Company to develop a specialty product. They accepted the assignment based on a rough draft and without analyzing the risks and thus  leading to the project being later terminated by Peters Company and jeopardizing their long-standing good relationship with the client. The project started before the contract was signed. Corwin’s failure could be attributed to a number of errors that were made on accepting this assignment. A number of important factors like the management policy, were completely ignored. Corwin agreed on a fixed-price 5-year contract based on a rough draft, no proper analysis was done and the scope was unclear. This meant that Corwin would be responsible for any cost overruns incurred. It is never advisable to accept a fixed-price contract without determining the client’s needs and whether or not they are achievable. Corwin failed to assign the right person to manag e the project. An inexperienced Project Manager was tasked to lead the project and although one of the senior managers had doubts about the project manager’s capabilities to lead such a project, his concerns were ignored. Effort Corwin allowed an in-house representative direct access to the lab which ultimately left the employees unhappy and disgruntled. The lack of management support also played a major role in the project’s failure. Management was dealing with the issues raised by the project manager passively and hoped the â€Å"situation would correct itself†. The requirements were poor and the schedule was unrealistic. Poor project selection, lack of support from top management, non-existent change management control and communication issues were identified as areas of concern within the Corwin Corporation. For the purpose of the case study, the researcher will be discussing how these project management principles/concepts, if followed properly could have prevented Corwin from accepting this project. CASE ANALYSIS 1. Project Selection Project Selection should not be perceived to be a tedious and unnecessary exercise but as an important exercise that would be beneficial for the customer and the contractor. A number of factors such as production consideration, marketing consideration, financial consideration, personnel consideration and administration consideration, need to be taken into  consideration to ensure that the project is in line with the organisation’s strategic objectives. 1.1 Poor Project Selection Corwin established a management policy that governed the project selection process for the evaluation of specialty product requests. (Burke: 67) states that â€Å"The selection of the right project for future investment is a crucial decision for the long-term survival of a company†. Frimel’s failure to follow the management put the company’s reputation at risk. Following the project selection process assists companies in deciding which projects to pursue and which to let go. Most of the executives were away on vacation which means that the project was not evaluated using the company’s selection method and without the executives’ consultation. It is important to note that during the evaluation process, individuals with different with backgrounds and subject-matter expects should been involved to make an informed decision whether or not to take on Peters Company offer. In this case, the major decision-makers were away on holiday. Peters Company came across as bullying and threatening in their requests thus this might have led to Corwin accepting the project to save their business relationship. This project was outside Corwin’s scope and should have never been accepted. It answered â€Å"NO† on the first criteria of the management policy therefore it wasn’t viable. 1.2 Proposal Preparation A proposal is a response document to the RFP (Request for Proposal), it includes a plan of action, states why the action is necessary and persuades the customer to approve the implementation of the recommended action. The proposal should also include a plausible management plan and technical approach. To create winning proposals, it is important to have resources with relevant skills and expertise e.g. subject matter expects, to help prepare a quality proposal. Royce used inappropriate and unskilled resources to prepare the proposal. He had reservations about selecting West; despite his lack of experience in dealing with external projects, as the Project  Manager without Dr. Reddy’s (R&D Manager) input but he ignored his instincts. The proposal preparation was conducted by contracts man who was not familiar with fixed-price contracts. Royce was overly optimistic in estimating the cost and didn’t include contingency to cover unexpected situations that may arise during the project. (Clements & Gido, 5th Edition: 69) states that â€Å"if the estimated costs are overly optimistic and some unexpected expenditures arise, the contractor is likely to either lose money (on a fixed-price contract) or hate to suffer the embarrassment of going back to the customer to request additional funds to cover cost overruns†. Corwin’s final proposal to Peters was a technical document as it contained engineering intent and cost summaries which were also not properly done. This later in the project resulted in scope creeps which saw Corwin’s profit on the project diminish. 1.3 Contract Negotiation Fixed-price contracts are beneficial to the customer but not the contractor. Before signing this type of contract, the customer should have a detailed scope work from the customer. There are risks associated with this type of contract for contractors, i.e. the customer is liable for any cost overruns should the project run beyond schedule, budget and time. Agreeing to a fixed-price contract was also one of the contributing factors that led to the project’s failure. Although the profit margins sounded appealing on the phone during Delia and Frimel’s conversation, they looked different on paper. The disadvantages of such a contract for Corwin far outweighed the advantages for Peters Company. (Clements & Gido, 5th Edition: 76) states that â€Å"Fixed-price contracts are most appropriate for projects that are well defined and entail little risk†. It is good practice to start working on a project after the contract has been signed. Corwin worked first and signed later . 1.4 Risk Management Ignored Royce made a commitment to assess the risks once he got hold of the specification sheets. Looking at the Cost Summary in the proposal, one can  conclude that he never kept to his commitment since it didn’t even include the contingency amount. â€Å"Some level of risk planning should be done during the initiation phase of the project life cycle to make sure, for example, that the contractor understands the risks involved with bidding on a proposed project† (Clements & Gido, 5th Edition: 270). Risk assessment therefore is an important aspect of project initiation because it helps the contractors make better decisions, negotiate fair contracts and create risk mitigation methods. A good risk assessment takes into consideration anything that could go wrong with the project and determines what it would cost. Accepting a project outside Corwin’s scope area of expertise was a risk, appointing an inexperienced scientist from the R&D department was a risk, agreeing to a fixed-price contract was a risk and procurement of all materials was a risk. Corwin resorted to risk aversion. 1.5 Project Kickoff Meeting West solicited support from other groups after sending the proposal to the customer. This left his colleagues unhappy because of the lack of communication about the project objective. It is the project manager’s duty to involve the project team at the early stages of the project to clearly define the project objective, gather support from the departments affected by and involved in the project and define each member’s role and responsibility. †The project manager spearheads development of a plan to achieve the project objective. By involving the project team (Clements & Gido, 5th Edition: 303) in developing this plan, the project manager ensures a more comprehensive plan than he or she could develop alone†. Project kickoff meetings provide a good platform for the project manager to deliver a presentation about the meeting and its importance to the organization. Clear roles and responsibilities of each project team member must be discussed. An understanding of each member’s role in a team reduces communication issues and late deliverables. This will not only help him gain commitment from the team but it will also assist in accomplishing the project objective on time, within budget and of the right quality. 1.6 Change Management At the start of the project, a change control system needs to be established to define how changes will be documented, approved and communicated† (Clements & Gido, 5th Edition: 320). The project manager did not have proper change control procedure in place. The in-house representative made changes to the scope, which resulted in scope creep. His changes were not documented and communicated and were not within the budget. When he requested an additional five tests beyond the agreed scope, the project manager should have evaluated the request and provided Peters Company with a proposal outlining the costs to add the tests to the scope. Uncontrolled change exposed Corwin to unnecessary risk. A change control process is significant to the successful delivery of a project and ensures that each change introduced to the project environment is appropriately defined, evaluated and approved. The project manager in this case struggled to control changes in the project because he didn†™t have proper process in place and that he lacked project management experience. 1 Lack of Management Support Top management support is the most important critical success factor for project success. Many projects fail because they have only passive senior management support. In mature organisations, executives act as project sponsors. In this case, Royce (VP of Engineering) should have been the project sponsor. The role of a sponsor is to â€Å"ensure that the correct information from the contractor’s organisation is reaching executives in the customer’s organisation, that there is no filtering of information from the contractor to the customer, and that someone at the executive level is making sure that the customer’s money is being spent wisely† (Kerzner, 7th Edition: 475). The project failed to achieve an enthusiastic approval from the president, there was little hope of it being successful. Projects need some involvement by executive management to allocate needed resources appropriately to the projects. The executives set strategic goal for organization and uses projects to meet those goals. They need to provide guidance to project managers that is in line with the organisation’s strategic objectives and track the alignment of those objectives to the  project objectives. Frimel, after initiating the project, distanced himself when he handed full responsibility over to Royce and went on vacation. Frimel had experience in these types of projects because his department was the decision maker for the specialty products. He should have acted as project sponsor and supported Royce but instead, left him to fail. During the first meeting in which the project was discussed, Dr. Reddy (R&D Manager) expressed his dissatisfaction about the choice of project manager Royce had made. 2.7 Organisational Structure and Culture â€Å"The organizational culture, style, and structure influence how projects are performed† (PMBOK, 4th Edition: 27). Corwin has maintained a functional organisational structure for more than 15 years. In functional structures, project managers do not full control over the project teams. One of the disadvantages with this type of structure is the competition among functional departments. Corwin’s Marketing department made almost all the decisions, project managers for specialty products came out of marketing. The Engineering department as stated in the case study, â€Å"was considered merely as a support group†. The Vice President for engineering mentioned at some point that his vote never appeared to carry any wait. The morale was very low in some departments as they felt that they were not as valued as the other departments. Reddy did not give much support to the project manager and later contradicted himself that the project manager â€Å"kept him in the dar k†. His unbecoming behaviour can be attributed to the fact that the Vice President failed to heed his call about his reservations towards the choice of the PM thus, he became so reluctant to assist the PM. A healthy organizational culture encourages accountability and personal responsibility. Denial, blame and excuses harden relationships and intensify conflicts. 2 Poor Communication The president’s reluctant authorization was interpreted as â€Å"the boss gave his blessing†. â€Å"†¦ phone conversations allow the listener to hear the tone,  inflection, speed, volume and emotion of the voice† (Clements & Gido, 5th Edition: 371). A reluctant voice sounds differently from an enthusiastic voice on the phone. The project manager failed to communicate timely to the executives about the representative’s interfering behaviour, he thought he could handle it. The situation spiraled out of control when the representatives started giving orders to the project manager about removing functional employees on the team. Providing the customer with progress reports frequently, keeps the customer in the loop and informed about the status of the project. Communication skills are one of the most important skills every project manager should possess, it very important that the project manager communicates with the stakeholders and project team. The project manager should have escalated problems as they occurred and scheduled meetings to resolve them. He should know what needs to be communicated to who and when. CONCLUSIONS Corwin Corporation failed to follow its own management policy, took on a project, and neglected to apply the proper management principles. The executives were not part of the contract acquisition and failed to develop and nurture the project manager. The organizational culture was such that all departments were equal but some were equal more than the others were. This resulted in people wanting to prove themselves worthy by taking on big projects even though they lacked experience. The project manager was set deliberately set to fail, the manager knew his strength and weaknesses but was unavailable to assist until the last minute. Corwin did not have a house rules in place with regards to in-house representatives. Corwin didn’t work the plan and therefore couldn’t plan the work. RECOMMENDATIONS * Top management need to educate employees on the management policy regarding new projects. Functional managers need to lead this drive. * The Engineering department plays as much a role in decision making as the Marketing and Manufacturing department. The R&D bring innovation of the products in the organization and thus should not be seen as a support group. * The project manager’s mistakes were attributed to his lack of  experience. The PM should continue to lead small projects and the organization must provide Project Management training for aspiring project managers within the company. * The staff’s morale is low at this point, management needs to organize team-building to boost confidence and foster and repair relationships * Create cross functional teams to function as self-directed respond to specific directives REFERENCES James P. Clements & Jack Gido. 2007. Effective Project Management. 5th Edition. South-Western: Cengage Learning. Harold Kerzner, PHD. Project Management: A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling. Seventh Edition. USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc. PMBOK ® Guide . 2008. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge. Fourth Edition. USA: Project Management Institute.

Compliance with Nursing Homes Regulations Essay

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Trace the events surrounding the Birth of Texas - Essay Example The Mexican War was a large event that lasted from 1846 – 1848. This war was initiated over borders. This war helped determine Texan borders and allowed for Texas to house its current shape and size. Before the Mexican War Texas was Spanish owned and slow to develop. After settlers took over Texas, Texas flourished with natural resources. Since Texas was once owned by the Spanish it is home to many Spanish Americans. When Texas was Spanish owned it quickly became over populated with American settlers. American settlers saw the potential that Texas housed and were eager to develop. This over population of Americans, land disputes and promising future fueled Americans to fight and take over this land from the Spanish. After just a few short years of battle, Texas became known as the Independent Republic of Texas. The independent Republic of Texas lasted for ten years. During these ten years many smaller events took place and are now know as Texan history. This republic lasted from 1836 to 1846. The Texas Revolution is largely responsible for the states independence. The first flag of Texas was the Burnet Flag and was eventually replaced by the current and well known lone star flag. There were many different presidents during this time and a formal congress. After holding its own republic for ten years Texas eventually became known as the 28th state of America. This annexation into the United States took place in 1845. This was a success as the first annexation in 1837 was unsuccessful due to the thought of war. Oil, oil and more oil was largely popular in the early 1900’s. The discovery of the much oil housed by Texas allowed Texas to eventually become a very wealthy state. In 1901, oil was discovered which led to the discovery of much more oil which covered basically the whole entire state of Texas. Texas and its discovery of oil allowed for Texas to grow and become powerful. The use of oil was so powerful in Texas that the state

Memorandum Mandatory Use of Turkish Language Essay Example for Free

Memorandum Mandatory Use of Turkish Language Essay This Memorandum aims to provide brief information on (i) provisions and restrictions imposed by the Law on Mandatory Use of Turkish Language by Economic Enterprises numbered 805 and dated 10 April 1926 (the â€Å"Law No. 805†) on Turkish and foreign enterprises; (ii) consequences of non-compliance with the Law No. 805; and (iii) application of the good faith principle in the light of the precedents of the Turkish Supreme Court of Appeals (the â€Å"Court of Appeals†). A. SCOPE OF THE LAW NO. 805 The Law No. 805 is applicable to all Turkish and foreign enterprises with respect to transactions listed in Articles 1 and 2 of the Law No. 805; however, application of the Law No. 805 differs depending on the nationality of the enterprise. 1. 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ForeÄ ±gn enterprÄ ±ses In accordance with Article 2 of the Law No. 805, â€Å"This obligation applies to foreign companies and enterprises only in their communications, transactions and relations with the Turkish institutions and persons and for the documents, books and records which must be submitted to governmental offices and government officers.† Pursuant to Turkish legislation, a foreign enterprise is a duly incorporated legal entity that has its registered office outside of Turkey. For foreign enterprises, as stated above, the requirement of Turkish language usage is limited only to (i) transactions, correspondences and communications with persons and legal entities subject to Turkish laws; and (ii) documents, books and records which will be presented to Turkish authorities. In contrast with Article 1 of Law No. 805, Article 2 of the Law No. 805 has a narrower a scope of obligation to use Turkish language. The wording â€Å"agreement† is willingly not stated in Article 2 on purpose. In other words, the Law No. 805 does not specifically refer to agreements under the provision concerning foreign entities. This omission indicates that the Law No. 805 allows the execution of an agreement between a foreign entity and a Turkish entity in a foreign language. There are several court decisions with respect to Article 2 of the Law No. 805. In a decision by the 11th Circuit of the Court of Appeals, the Court of Appeals has upheld that all accounts and books have to be in Turkish language, when submitted to the relevant Turkish authorities. Otherwise, they do not have any validity before Turkish courts. The Court of Appeals has come to a similar conclusion summarizing that Turkish enterprises may enter into agreements with foreign enterprises in any language since Article 2 of the Law No. 805 specifically lists instances where foreign enterprises are prohibited from using a foreign language and this list does not include agreements. Accordingly, the Court of Appeals has concluded that agreements may be executed in any foreign language, where one of the parties is a foreign enterprise and the other is Turkish. According to this decision, an agreement executed in a foreign language between a foreign company and a Turkish company is valid and binding on the parties pursuant to and under Turkish laws. However, under Article 4 of the Law No.805, the parties are compelled to use Turkish language in all correspondences with respect to the agreement, although the agreement is allowed to be drafted in a foreign language. B. CONSEQUENCES OF NON-COMPLIANCE WITH THE LAW NO. 805 Pursuant to Article 7 of the Law No. 805, any party violating the related provisions is imposed to a judicial fine of at least 100 days. The Turkish Penal Code numbered 5237 has regulated the judicial fine provisions and accordingly the judicial fine for one day shall be determined between TL 20 – TL 100 depending on (i) severity of violation; (ii) specific and economic conditions of persons; and (iii) discretion of judges. C. GOOD FAITH PRINCIPLE Pursuant to Article 2 of the Turkish Civil Code, raising a good faith claim is possible regarding the conflicts in an agreement. While deciding on the validity of the good faith claims, the determination shall be made on a case-to-case basis. In terms of disputes regarding non-compliance with the Law No. 805, there is not a definite provision for the application of the good faith principle and we have not come across any judgment of the Court of Appeals regarding the good faith claims has raised with respect to the application of the Law No. 805. However, with respect to the general provisions regarding the good faith claims, by analogy, the following solution may apply to conflicts on the mandatory use of Turkish language in agreements. In the event that the parties have carried out their performances to the fullest extent, considering that the agreement is valid, the agreement, itself, should be considered valid, as well. The Court of Appeals, in one of its judgments, has stated that if parties have carried out their obligations under a contract for a long time, it would be a violation of the good faith principles to claim that the related contract is invalid. Similarly, the Assembly of Civil Chambers of the Court of Appeals has ruled in a former decision that the right to raise a good faith claim is restricted when the party raising the claim is acting against the good faith principle. Although the aforementioned judgment does not directly refer to a dispute under the Law No. 805, the following conclusion could be drawn: when one or both of the parties is awaring (or shall be aware) of the mandatory use of Turkish language requirement and the aware party (or parties) disregards this rule on purpose, they should not be able to rely on a good faith claim regarding the language of the agreement.

Issues in development theory

Issues in development theory Issues In Development Theory The only kind of development that matters is economic growth everything else will follow. ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT THEORY INTRODUCTION This paper reviews some ideas surrounding the complex but contested concept of development, including those relating to economic growth. A distinction between development and economic growth models was attempted to expose ideas from these models and my own perception about models. In analysing, contemporary issues on development and growth of any nation, it can be looked at from various perspectives ranging from policy failures and / or implementation failures or resources inadequacy and / or sub optimality in the allocation of resources.   In fact, problems emanating out of domestic market failure and / or government failure are always manifested in increased levels of unemployment inflection and poverty. The concepts of development in general and economic development have often been treated as synonymous concepts. However, the theory of economic development of a country may be associated with (amongst other things) rising incomes and related increases in consumption savings and investment. (Berkeley Hill, 2006) From my own point of view, there is far more to economic development than growth in incomes.   It is therefore suffice to say that if income distribution is highly skewed, growth may not be accompanied by much progress towards the goals that are usually associated with economic development.   Development is also traced to the economic causes of continued poverty and under-development of various nations which actually indicates level of employment and standard of living in a particular nation (IFPRI 2009).   In essence, increasing the output or the gross national income of any nation should automatically lead to increase in social welfare, happiness and longevity due to i ncrease in total production and consumption. The contemporary any issues are not recent issues but issues that have emanated since the inception of development economic while others crept in with temper of time. A lot of contemporary issues relating to development economics have been in existence for so long.   Some of the issues relating to development are indeed as old as human civilisation! HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENT This paper proposes that the meaning of development is contentious because of how it has been defined and viewed over time. Since the end of Second World War, when both existing and post war obstacles like underdevelopment, leadership problem, lack of cooperation or coordinating Bodies like UN in the world, underutilization of   available resources. According to Nayyar 2003, since the end of Second World War, more attentions had been paid to underdevelopment; mainstream development theory was largely the ambit of economists. Due to this, much of early development discourse, centered on economic theories and models, which emphasised and aimed to achieve production and resource allocation efficiency. The primary aim of the theories was to enhance productivity, effective resources allocation and improve standard of living. It is mostly believe rapid economic growth will improve the standard of living of people who participated in it through the trickle down effect. These theories were heavily criticised when there were no signs of economic growth and development which led to development of alternative approach. The alternative approaches supplemented the existing theories in promoting equitable and sustainable economic growth with enhance standard of living. However, as a result of previously developed theories, this paper will select, describe and further analyse a few of the theories to illustrate their different perspectives of economic development. Basis of controversy will be analysed and finally gradual steps of mainstream development thinking and practice will be shown with the enlargement of development agenda, making the meaning of development less contentious than its has been in the past. During the 1950s and 1960s, development theories like Rostows and Harrod Domars growth models, postulated development as series of stages that a country will naturally pass through (Todaro and Smith, 2006), (Gore, 1999). These stages are invariably noted in European countries and other developed countries but seemed not yet taken place in Africa countries because there were no notable signs of economic developments. According to Thirlwal 2003 they only required meeting the right conditions such as saving and investment levels to move from one stage to another. These theories believe for there to be economic development there must be massive capital investment and definitely economic growth would automatically follow failing to take cognizance of other factors like good planning, even distribution of income, corruption free environment, effective budget implementations and review. They only required meeting the right conditions such as saving and investment levels to move from one stage to another (Thirlwal, 2003). They argued that many developing countries were in same situation that developed countries had been in before they developed. It should be noted that most of these developed countries had no reference point or direct guidance like economic theories on how best to develop then while all these theories, models and planning tools are available at the disposal of developing countries to develop now they still find it difficult if not impossible to develop. This means there are other silent techniques, information or management theories that are directly involved in economic developments. Around the same period from 1960 to 1970 development meant modernisation through the structural transformation of an economy as in Lewis model (Thirlwal, 2003),(Stiglitz, 2001). This is true in actual fact because they i.e Thirlwal and Stiglitz based their studies and assumptions of developed countries having undergone series of economic growth stages supported by adequate government policies and strategies which increase the standard of living positively. Simultaneously, there were some structural transformations of economic in underdeveloping countries like Nigeria that did not bring on economic developments. For instance, Operation Feed The Nation introduced by General Obasanjo did not actually improved the standard of living and there were no signs of economic development because of other factors like lack of amenities, management and leadership problem, Inconsistency in government policies and strategies, Political Instability.    This model and others like it described development as the transformation of a typically rural subsistence economy to a more modern urbanised industrial one (Todaro and Smith, 2006). Advanced economies consistently ensure economic stability, economic growth and increase in per capital income to ensure there is economic development. This transformation was done by more efficient resource utilisation which led to improvements in productivity and economic growth. It was also implicitly assumed that economic growth due increased productivity would result in increased earnings for firms, and workers, which would eventually lead to improvement of human welfare (Elliott, 2002), (Todaro and Smith, 2006). Most of these theories assumed that there is direct relationship between economic growth, efficient resources allocation and production efficiency. They argued that before economic development could be achieved, there must be increased savings and investments, domestic and international factors like inflations, exchange rate, interest rate, unemployment level must be effectively considered and factors into policies and strategies. They believed that if these constraints were removed, developing countries could grow at an even faster rate than the industrialised nations (Todaro and Smith, 2006). From critical angles, it is believed that most of the developing countries problem are from developed countries through bad debt management system, lack of adequate knowledge in financial market and instruments, balance of trade, insincerity of the political leaders and some other indices. During the 1970s Dependency theories emerged which expressed discontent with previous development models (Desai and Potter, 2002). This theory i.e dependency theory studied relationship between industrial economies and developing economies. It showed the business and non business interaction between the developed and developing countries. Contributions and impacts of both economies were analyzed to identify loopholes and provide further studies for future reference of the economic developments. These models, it was argued, had a narrow meaning of development and only served to further uplift the already well off and suppress the poor (Leys, 1996), (Thirlwal, 2003).   This theory complements the existing theories that economic development is a function of economic growth and improved standard of living. While many of their principles were essentially structuralist in nature (Hettne, 2002) and acknowledged that economic growth was necessary for development, they had no faith in relyi ng solely on market forces and the trickle down effect as a mechanism for facilitating development. They argued that the trickle down effect often failed to materialise and the privates sector could not, due to its profit motive, promote equitable income distribution, provide essential goods and services to poorer sections of society and remote areas at affordable prices (Gore, 1999), (Todaro and Smith, 2006). They assumed the government role is prominent and can only supplement if needed. But their assumption was wrong because most of the countries that adopted the thoughts failed and there were no much development in the countries. This is because government policies and strategies were not properly supported to ensure even distribution of income due to profit maximization objective of private firms. Some of the developing countries especially Africans developmental plan failed due high level of corruption, lack of financial planning and review, lack of institutional capacity, pol itical and economic instability and uneven distribution of incomes. In addition because their views were drawn from Marxist ideology many of their views were attacked and discredited by influential western critics. Its influence was further eroded by the collapse of the Soviet Union (Leys, 1996),(Shuurman, 2002). This thought were criticised by many theorist and western critics, who believe both government and private firms should balance the economic development goals. In the 1980s the neoclassical counterrevolutionaries or neo liberals like earlier classical theorists advocated that development was caused by economic growth which could be achieved through applying supply side macroeconomic policies, rational expectations theories and privatisation of public corporations, freer trade, export expansion, removal of state planning and regulation of economic activities (Desai and Potter, 2002), (Todaro and Smith, 2006). They are of opinion that market is determined by the interaction of demand and supply of goods and services while at times government policies and strategies could negatively affect economic developments. In support of their arguments, countries like Mexico, Taiwan, Singapore South Korea and several other Asian countries were given as examples of free market success stories (Gore, 1999). Unfortunately, the East Asian crisis led to questions being asked about the soundness allowing free market polices drive the economy while the state i nterfered little (Chang, 2003), (Desai and Potter, 2002). However, surprisingly, the actual contributions of the free market and government to Asian Tigers success and crash   is also a controversial issue (Onis and Senses, 2005), (Adelman, 2001). The theories are of opinions that government influence on market should be little while the interaction of demand and supply of determine price and market with government monitoring through budgets and financial instruments like treasury bills, treasury certificate, bonds etc. Since the late 1980s neo -liberalism, just like earlier classical theories, has been criticised for its overemphasis on economic growth as the key to development (Onis and Senses, 2005). They argued that much emphasis was placed on economic growth as the key component of economic development. They believed there are other components that must be present before economic development could be proclaimed. Furthermore, despite the initial success of a few East Asian countries, many countries which had implemented recommendations advocated by the major proponents of neo liberalism , the IMF and the World Bank (Gore, 1999) , did not record much or robust improvement and in some cases became poorer (White, 2002), (Leys, 1996), (Thirlwal, 2003). They argued that if the necessary components of economics developments other than economic growth are available poverty would be reduced and standard of living will improve especially those in developing countries. DEVELOPMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH Some theories were developed in 1990s, proposed some approaches to development e.g Sens capability approach, UNDPs sustainable human development approach. These theories are of opinion that any economic development or whatsoever depends on human capital/resources of a nation. According to Allen 2000, It is believed that economic policies or strategies should be people centred as opposed to the growth centred Sen 1999 also argued development means an individual is able to obtain physical necessities, have a job, participate in government, belong to a nation that is truly independent, have adequate education, be treated as an equal, meet their needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations, and be free from social dislocation, violence and war, poverty, tyranny, poor economic opportunities, systematic social deprivation through neglect of public facilities and intolerance or over activity of a repressive state. This school of thought believe if human beings or citizens of a nation are well developed and catered for definitely the economy will be growing and automatically lead to economic development. It also means there cannot be anything refers to a country or nation without its citizens and all economic activities and operations of the country is carried out by nobody except those that have been adequately and properly developed. Despite these criticisms, UNDPs approach did not entirely discredit the Washington Consensus agreeing with and reinforcing its economic growth centred development and macro level policy reform recommendations (Gore, 1999). This therefore means that for an economy to develop, there must be economic growth, good human resources/capital and improved standard of living. The Washington consensus was challenged by Southern Consensus in 1990s. Gore explains that like earlier dependence school theorists they argued that previous theories based on market and production efficiency and effectiveness fundamentals could not be used as a standard model that every developing country must follow. This then followed argument that theories that market and production efficiency and effectiveness should not be used as standard yardstick for all developing countries. They didnt disregard all the recommendations of classical theorist that placed emphasis that economic growth is the core component of economic development but argued that intensive capital savings and accumulations supported by favourable balance of trade/payment, standard of living and efficient utilisation of resources were necessary to ensure rapid economic development. They also are of opinion that active utilisation of opportunities provided by international trade/relationship like foreign aids/grants, exports and importation, foreign investments, innovations  Ã‚   should be considered in both macro and micro economic policies and strategies. Another theory of economic development that share the same view with the Sens capability Approach and UNDPs Sustainable Human Development approach is the Alternative Development Approach. Alternative Approach supports people and participatory centred practices and redefining the objectives of development. It has some similarities with the classical approaches to development. It was developed after due consideration to the criticisms of previous development approaches. Alternative development can be considered as a combination of the criticisms of previous development approaches (Pieterse, 2001). Due to its inclusive nature, it was argued that it did not present any new perspective to meaning or definitions of economic development. Alternative Approach basically selected useful recommendations/thoughts from different approaches to develop its theory/thought. He and Kothari and Minogue (2002) further argued that the distinction between alternative development and mainstream development theories varies with time as mainstream development thinking integrates many of the principles of theories which have criticised it. This then supports the earlier argument of Pieterse 2001 that Alternative approach use combination of criticisms of previous development approaches. Neo liberation adopted many concepts and assumptions of Washington Consensus policy despite its earlier criticisms of the policy. The final product , as some had proposed and predicted, was a form of post Washington consensus with a broader development agenda (Stiglitz, 2001) (Gore, 1999), (Onis and Senses, 2005). The neo-liberation worked extensively on recommendations of Washington Consensus in developing its own theories. This new version is evident in current IMF and World Bank development assistance packages which emphasise integration of previous top down and bottom up approaches as is evident in the formulation processes of country poverty reduction strategy papers which are a prerequisite to obtain assistance from them (Wolfensohn and Fischer, 2000).   Because of its advance work and recommendations on Washington Consensus Policy, IMF and World Bank used its recommendations in formulating policies in granting assistances to countries that need financial aids. In the early 1990s another developmental theories came on board called Right Based Approach to Development. Musembi and Cornwall explained that its origins are that many struggle for the realisation of all sorts of rights that have been taking place ever since the advent of colonialism, such as countries likes Kenya, Nigeria, and Zimbabwe. This occurred basically when these countries believed the welfare of the countries and their citizens could be better when given freedom. They believed that economic development would be faster than when managed by colonial masters.   This approach is basically to integrate human right with economic development. The United Nations has been advocating that human right and freedom is the key to economic development for the past four decades. Just recent it has emerged that sustainable human development and human right approach are core components of economic development for any nation. The Right Based Approach did not present totally new idea/thought just like Alternative Development Approach to economic development but mere advanced recommendations on previous theories with adequate considerations to current economic issues.   However, what is striking about it is that it attempts to introduce a sense of collective responsibility and precise obligations on the international community to create a conducive environment for the realisation of the rights to development (OHCHR, 1986).   The Right Based approach to Development only makes recommendations to ensure freedom to all countries and grants fundamental human right to everybody believing if this is done economic growths, enhanced standard of livings, even distribution of incomes that would speed up economic development would be easily realized. Of late Neo liberal ideals have culminated in the form of globalisation (integration into the world economy) (Hettne, 2002) advocating that it is not only a means of ensuring efficiency and equity but growth and development of the world economy (Chang, 2003).   It was argued that there are hidden benefits and advantages that would accrue if the concept of globalization was embraced particularly by underdeveloped countries.   Benefits like latest technology and innovations, information, financial exchanges, flows of goods and services, openness, direct investments, international trade, ideas and opinions will move from one country to another with different knowledge, experience, resources and technical know-how which will ultimately lead to development. The fundamental belief is that it will increase prosperity for those join the system and marginalise those who do not (Gore, 1999). This concept was developed in 1970s but recently been promoted more by the advanced countries afte r fall of communism.   However, despite the claims that it is a driver of development it has generated uneven results with some countries prospering and other becoming more impoverished (Watkins and others, 2005). This is because there are some silent variables that have direct influence on all economic development variables like available resources to back policies, corruptions with the system, economic and political stability, consistency in leadership and management programme. This is one of the reasons why one policies or approach will work like a magic in one country and will fail woefully in another country. For Instance, most of these approaches work in advanced economies but otherwise in developing countries like Nigeria, Ghana where economic and political are not stable, corruptions is on high side, planning and implementations are not in place talk less of constant review and adjustments. According to Kothan and Minogue, 2002 one reason why the development theories mentioned above and others like them disagreed on development is due to failure to agree on what the objectives of development are. This means there are lots of arguments of what could be regarded as economic developments. There are numerous types of objectives that may be set as the purpose of development explicitly or otherwise (Potter, 2002).   That is why what many people see as development many only be regarded as just growth by others. It is claimed that objective may be political, economic or social, the most important is what the country/nation set to achieve. For instance classical theories promoted the concept of development as economic growth by modernisation, changing from old to newer more efficient and effective ways of resources use and allocation, and production (Stiglitz, 2001). Meanwhile, more egalitarian objectives are set out to be achieved by others like people centred approaches, dep endence theorists. They argued that those who were unable to participate in the structural transformation processes were often marginalised, remained poor or became poorer because they did not have the required skills, knowledge or financial resources (Todaro and Smith, 2006). That is they encouraged citizens to be empowered and trained because they are whatever the country achieved. They argued that they are the real economic development driver. Steps in economic developments and associated changes are also causing disagreements. While linear stage theorists argued that Development is a process which countries, regions or societies go through either naturally or deliberately (Todaro and Smith, 2006) , others rejected the notion of having a blue print and time frame for development that is applicable to all countries (Gore 1999), (Adelman, 2001). They argued that different countries are in different stages and situation and therefore required different attentions. The factors like economic, political, cultural, social, technological of one country differs from other, have effects on its economic development policies and strategies and must be monitored accurately to achieve economic development.   This then embraces call for a bottom up rather than a top bottom theory. Development may be universally accepted as improvement in well being but the there can be no prescription of what this well being entails (Pieterse, 2001), ( Nayyar, 2003), (Sen, 1999), (Stiglitz, 2001), (Gore, 1999). And they also argued that economic growth resulted from natural resources is no substitutes for features like corrupt free environment, justice and equity treatment and stable economic environment. Classical and neoclassical theorists believed the core basis of economic development is gross domestic product per capital. The interpretation of economic growth as meaning development and the use of changes in gross domestic product per capita, by the classical and neoclassical theorists,   has also been criticised for its unsuitability   as a measure of development (Thirlwal, 2002).   They are criticised because they believe there are other parameters in measuring economic development. They further argued that increases in material wealth or total productions is only what economic growth deals with but failed to consider others like income distributions, composition of goods and services and general standard of livings. Furthermore, it has been noted that the rewards of improved productivity and economic efficiency accrue largely to owners of capital and the majority of the population are left only slightly better off (Pieterse, 2001).   They argued that components of econo mic development include economic growth, even distribution of income and standard of livings. Roles play by government of countries in economic developments is largely influenced by international factors. Conflict also may arise because governments have to contend with the decline in their sovereignty over their countrys development (Thomas and Allen, 2000). Government has to make efficient and effective utilization of resources available while also considering the influence of international communities and bodies. Development is now being influenced to a large extent by international finance, official development agencies, non governmental agencies, and community based organisations (Khor, 2003), (Kothari and Minogue, 2002).   The effect of international factors on economic developments of every nation is very important most especially developing countries that rely mostly on international loans and grants to supplement their revenues.   According to Desai and Potter, 2002 government now merely provide a conducive atmosphere in which these international agencies can prom ote development. This has been on increase in recent times whereby government make provisions for international agencies aids and grants in the annual budget basically for capital projects that stimulate economic developments. Conflict also may arise because governments have to contend with the decline in their sovereignty over their countrys development (Thomas and Allen, 2000). Development is now being influenced to a large extent by international finance, official development agencies, non governmental agencies, and community based organisations (Khor, 2003), (Kothari and Minogue, 2002).   Governments now merely provide a conducive atmosphere in which these agencies can promote development (Desai and Potter, 2002).   This has naturally given rise to sources of resentment, since governments are sometimes sidelined. Suspicions also arise concerning who is meant to benefit from aid and loan conditions, which recommend macro and micro level policy reforms. Misunderstandings often arise about whose development is being sought. For instance it has been argued that donors often provide assistance to further their own interests (Kothari and Minogue, 2002). They formulate loan conditions and support developm ent projects with the aim of improving their own industries profitability by providing business through establishing new markets, investment opportunities, and   tied aid (Desai and Potter, 2002), (Thomas and Allen, 2000) or access to cheap raw materials as during the colonial era (Leys, 1996), (Thirlwal, 2003), (Pieterse, 2001). Assistance provided in this manner may not benefit the recipient country in the long run since most of the aid will be repatriated in the case of tied aid. Some have even argued that despite the large amounts of aid provided to developing countries very few of them have actually developed much because much of it was not intended for development   (Thomas and Allen, 2000).   This means that for foreign loan or aids to achieve its developmental objectives, governments must channel them to appropriate sector of economy and ensure good and effective management of the resources. The promotion of economic growth and drive towards globalised world has also met with resistance due to the replacement of old way of life with new ones (OConnor, 2002). This issue is really retarding economic development because some people find it extremely very difficult to adapt to changes. Some in developing countries has expressed concern and their discontent with   foreign influences which have invaded their ways of life, stressing that development does not necessarily have be accompanied with disposal of even the good cultural values that previously existed (Athreya, 2002), (Varley, 2002), (OToole and Macgarvey, 2003). It is argued that that is direct relationship between economic development and ways of life. Some of the fundamental cultures of developed countries are introduced to developing countries because they assumed it is the part of development theories that succeed in the developed countries. Meanwhile, most of the developing countries have their ways doing things and find it difficult to change. In addition economic growth does not compensate for the depletion of damage caused to the environment from which peoples livelihoods, health and future development depend (Thirlwal, 2003). This therefore means that economic development include economic growths, even distribution of incomes, enhanced standard of livings and increased productivity. Another aspect of development worth noting is definition of scope of development by different entities over time. Some choose to define it narrowly as was the case in colonial days, while others such as dependence theorists and most of the people centred and sustainable development approaches have a broader conceptualisation of development (Leys, 1996), (Pieterse, 2001), (Nyamu-Musembi and Cornwall, 2004).   They all see development from different angle and perspective but they all pointing to one direction that economic development is something that must be pursue and achieved. This is more so of current rights based approaches and in particular the United Nations Millennium Development Goals which articulate development as a set of entitlements which people have the right to demand realisation of from their governments and the international community (Nyamu-Musembi and Cornwall, 2004), (OHCHR, 1986). It is the duty of every government to ensure economic development and ensure it is supported with productivity and adequate resources. Due to this broader meaning, development is no longer confined to prescriptions from donors, special interest groups, elected representatives or technocrats. It includes everything required for human well being (Nayyar, 2003), (Sen, 1999) . Development ensures freedom to all citizens and empowered them towards contributing meaningfully to the success of their state.

William Faulkner: The Postmodern Perspective

William Faulkner: The Postmodern Perspective Many critics consider William Faulkner a modernist writer, citing the time period between the 1930s and 40s as the era in which he wrote himself into and out of modernism. Indeed, Faulkners novels during these years reflect many of the typical aspects of modernist literature, and it is incontrovertibly innovative and unique. However, Faulkner appears to be doing more than what the Modernists were employing at the time, especially in the context of his experimentation with language. In fact, the great Southern writer appears to more so on the road to Postmodernism in his later works than anything. During this period between the 30s and the 40s what critics call Faulkners modernist epoch his writing also seems to flow with Lacans poststructural theories of language. Beginning with The Sound and the Fury in late 1929, Faulkner begins his journey through the Lacanian Mirror Stage, aware of the linguistic Imaginary. His effort to craft the imagined world of Yoknapatawpha reflects his ea rly Modernist self in Lacans Imaginary order stage, marking his uncomfortable attitude towards his alienation from the South he once knew. Quentin, whom most critics see as a double to Faulkner, is the incarnation of Faulkners attitude, and his multiple appearances in Faulkners novels marks the stage in Lacans process of linguistic development each time. The age ends with the authors fulfillment of the Lacanian journey, with nowhere to turn but back. Absalom, Absalom! and Afternoon of a Cow prove Faulkners acceptance of the impossibility of Lacans Real, highlighted by a writing style which could be characterized as transitionally postmodernist. Faulkners modernist/postmodernist identity crisis between the 30s and 40s occurs during the authors Lacanian development in language and thought, ending with the recognition of literatures inability to break the symbolic ceiling. While it would be incredibly shortsighted and undoubtedly wrong to refer to The Sound and the Fury as underdeveloped and not modern, the novel is nevertheless Faulkners most immature piece of literature in the context of Lacanian development. Here, Faulkner begins his troubles with language as he is initially trapped in the Imaginary stage. John T. Irwin, in his essay on Doubling and Incest in Faulkners literature, suggests that Faulkner created the character of Quentin as an unconsciously double of himself. Irwin purports that Faulkners own comments about the novel support this parallel between him and Quentin, especially his recognition of his own failures in literature and fate to retell the same stories (Irwin 280). While most critics point to Caddy as the focus of the novel because of her role as the absent center, a Lacanian reading of the text implies that the absent center is actually Faulkner himself since he puts so much of himself into Quentin (and some of the other charac ters as well, though it is most prevalent here). Quentins chapter, which becomes progressively more self-reflexive and anxious, reveals Faulkners own worries and discontent with language. It ends with his ultimate alienation from everyone and everything Quentins suicide which is how Lacan explains the mirror stage as ending. Lacan describes the completion of the mirror stage as the formation of the Ego through subjectification, during which a person undergoes a conflict between his or her own perception of the self and the actual self through experience Lacan refers to this result as alienation (Evans 110). Quentin has undergone this discovery of his own reality that which others have defined him to be and his perception of himself. As Irwin suggests, It is tempting to see in Quentin a surrogate of Faulkner, a double who is fated to retell and reenact the same story throughout his life just as Faulkner seemed fated to retell in different ways the same story again and again (Irw in 281). His death signifies Faulkners assessment of his own fate. He predicts literary failure for himself due to the inability of language fully express everything he attempts to convey. This marks Faulkners first encounter with the futility of language, and his first step in Lacanian development. Through this inner conflict, Faulkner associates with Quentin, and other characters like him. Indeed, he puts a part of himself in every character that he creates, but characters like Quentin best serve as literary representations of him when considering his troubles with language. Lacan holds that in the beginningà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦we exist as part of one continuous totality of being. In this early stage of development, we experience noà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦sense of difference, and, precisely for this reason, the [subject] has no sense of a separate identityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦there is no I and no other, and, Lacan insists, the two concepts come into existence together (Duvall and Abadie 98). Faulkners state at this point in his literary development is such as Lacan defines it. He has no sense of difference between himself and his work, and therefore he meshes himself with Quentin and his other characters. However, his own repressions appear in Quentins thoughts and words, and Faulkner is unaware o f the amount of similarities between himself and the character. Faulkner revised the introduction [to The Sound and the Fury] several times. In its final version, in which Faulkner doubles Quentins own words in the novel: So I, who had never had a sister and was fated to lose my daughter in infancy, set out to make myself a beautiful and tragic little girl' (Irwin 283). It is clearly through his own connection with Quentin that he learns how to connect with this novel, but the relationship that he develops with the character ultimately blurs the line between himself and Quentin. Faulkner can see the gap between language and reality, but he cannot seem to assure the differentiation between himself and his creations. A year later, Faulkner published his next novel, As I Lay Dying, in which he continues the linguistic struggles and development with the Bundren family. As Terrell Tebbetts suggests, each of the Bundren children suffers his or her own issue with language: Cash can only express himself through lists and figures, and though he seems perceptive at the end by explaining what happened to Darl, Cash recognizes Darls problems with language but presumes that they the fault of Darl, not language (Tebbetts 128-130). But it is better so for [Darl]. This world is not his world; this life his life (Faulkner 149). Cash speaks with a perception that is Faulknerian, as it reflects William Faulkners prediction of his own fate. In this novel, he connects most with Darl through their shared discontent with the shortcomings of language. Darls linguistic troubles are the most serious, as he isolates himself through his inability to express his feelings. His problems cause him to lose his identity, repeatedly asking things about himself such as who am I. Early in the novel, Vardaman asks what Darls mother is (Vardaman describes his mother as a fish), and Darl remarks that he does not have one. I havent got ere one, Darl said. Because if I had one, it is was. And if it was, it cant be is. Can it?' (Faulkner 58). Darls concept of language is that it describes reality, and only reality. He perceives that he does not have a mother because she is dead (hence, the was), yet what he really means is that he no longer has a mother. However, he gets so lost in his attempts to conceptualize this that he arrives at the decision that he does not have a mother. As alluded to earlier, these troubles affect his own identity. I dont know what I am. I dont know if I am or not. Jewel knows he is, because he does not know that he does no t know whether he is or not. He cannot empty himself for sleep because he is not what he is and he is what he is not (Faulkner 46). Darl has entered the mirror stage along with Faulkner, and he is thus aware of the conflicts between his own perceptions and the perceptions of others. Darl is highlighting the gap between the signifier and the signified in language, as Lacan calls it. Darl is our brother, our brother Darl. Our brother Darl in a cage in Jackson where, his grimed hands lying light in the quiet interstices, looking out he foams (Faulkner 146). He has been incredibly objective internally, seeing himself in an omniscient, third-person perspective, but this is a result of the inability to reconcile the real him and the him that others perceive him to be (the Lacanian signifier is their Darl, the signified is the real Darl). Therefore, he becomes the best example in the novel of a character that, by passing through the mirror stage and entering the Symbolic Realm, alienates himself completely (even within himself). Darl is also, then, the most connected with Faulkner, since he becomes aware of the failure of language to ever say what one means (Duvall and Abadie 39). Darl reflects what his mother discovered much earlier: words are no good; that words dont ever fit even what they are trying to say at (Faulkner 99). Addie also saw the gap between experience and language, which proves Coras statement that Darl has the most in common with Addie, but her troubles are more connected with the patriarchality of language, and therefore not as connected with Faulkner as Darl. Also, Addies death is another example of what Faulkner sees as the futility of efforts to connect reality and language. Likewise, despite Darls evolution from the Mirror Stage into the Symbolic Stage, his fate commitment to an insane asylum provides more evidence to prove that Faulkner saw no way to prevent these linguistic troubles from alienating and ultimately destroying his characters and himself. Therefore, Faulkner is still undoubtedly a Modernist at this point, as well as underdeveloped in the progression of Lacanian development, because he sees no escape from such a fate at this point. He would say that language is a hindrance more than a help. Darl masters lan guage internally, but he cannot apply it in reality, thus showing the gap between language and experience a modernist idea: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the wholeness of the image threatens the subject with fragmentation, and the mirror stage thereby gives rise to an aggressive tension between the subject and the image. In order to resolve this aggressive tension, the child identifies with the imageà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The moment of identification, when the subject assumes its image as its own, is described by Lacan as a moment of jubilation, since it leads to an imaginary sense of masteryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦however, this jubilation may also be accompanied by a depressive reactionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Evans 115) While Faulkner would not have known the psychological theories of Lacan, the characters of Quentin and Darl seem to fit the characterization of these issues well. However, these two characters are unable to come to terms with their image. While the end of Quentins chapter does not end with his suicide, we learn later that he takes his own life because he foresees no escape. Likewise, Darls uncontrollable laughter at the end of As I Lay Dying is his moment in which he has the opportunity to identify with one part of his fragmented self but proves unable to do so. Darls problem is also left unsolved, as his internal self argues within, demanding an explanation for his false triumph. They are both aware of their precarious states with language. Additionally, the mirror stage is where the subject becomes alienated from itself, and thus is introduced into the Imaginary order. Clearly both characters have entered this stage and find themselves completely alienated from themselves and the w orld. Terrell Tebbetts claims that Vernon Tull is the only character in the novel that can come to terms with this problem, resorting to the constant use of like in his descriptions and an employment of similes while talking (Tebbetts 130). Tebbetts is misled, however, because Tull is actually a Modernist character. By using similes to draw comparisons between things he is attempting to define, he is still grasping for the ideal that Modernists spent their careers trying to reach. Instead, a Postmodernist would take advantage of language rather than constantly highlight its failures (as I will discuss later). Tebbetts believes that Vernon Tull is Faulkners way of saying that the way out of the problem is acceptance, but the solution is more complicated than simple recognition. Besides, characters like Darl, Addie, and Quentin all understood the gap between language and reality, which drove them to their own forms of alienation. As I Lay Dying also features a level of intended humor that is classified as dark, or black, humor. One of the best examples of dark comedy in the novel is when we find Addie Bundren propped up on a pillow in order to watch as Cash constructs her coffin. Then [Addie] raises herself, who has not moved in ten daysà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦She is looking out the window, at Cash stooping steadily at the board in the failing lightà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦He drops the saw and lifts the board for her to see, watching the window in which the face has not moved (Faulkner 28). This moment evokes immediate laughter because Cash, the oldest child of the family, seems like a proud pet retrieving its catch of the day for his master. Likewise, everyone sees the grotesque and gaunt figure of Addie rise as if from the dead in order to view her burial chamber and then return to her former position, seemingly in approval. Even more dark comedy lies in Faulkners intended criticism of the other characters views toward each o ther. Every character that makes a negative comment about another is later shown to be hypocritical, being strange and quirky in his or her own way. Elements of Faulkners early novels, especially As I Lay Dying, show that the author was on the road to self-reflexivity and metafiction. Much of the Addie chapter, through its hypercritical look at the failure of language, is self-reflexive because it is actively commenting on the words and ideas presented in the novel, yet the self-conscious elements seem only present through implication. Faulkner never reaches his potential (or becomes fully aware of what he was doing) with the element of self-reflexivity until Absalom, Absalom! and Afternoon of a Cow. In his novels until then, Faulkner also had a preoccupation with what Modernists referred to as the attempt to make it new, trying to experiment with literature and attempting things unseen before. He is first in the Mirror Stage, looking at the traditional novel with its content, form, mimetic philosophy of language, and decides that he needs to break from tradition. Then he enters the next stage the Symbolic and attempts to creat e new and modern literature. While in this stage, though, he realizes the futility of language, and that everything he attempts fails. Faulkner repeatedly tries to achieve literary transcendence, but all he writes is merely a symbol of what he truly intends. It is not until Absalom, Absalom! that he not only accepts his state and failure, but he knowingly plays with the postmodern techniques and ideas. In the novel, Faulkner uses language to do what Lacan says it does reflect the condition of the alienated subject, the fractured self (Moreland 47). Nothing Faulkner attempts attains the literary transcendence for which he has been searching, and so he realizes this, comes to terms with it, and makes fun of this problem. Faulkners movement through the Lacanian linguistic progression led him prematurely to postmodernism. While he thought he was being modern by experimenting, he was actually employing many elements that surpassed the realm of modernism. As I Lay Dying was his first clear transitional work, in which it marked a road from modern to postmodern literature, as the novel hinges between the two genres itself (although, as mentioned before, it should be classified as a modern text if it must be categorized. Faulkner resists many of the modernist techniques and philosophies, but his break from the movement was not clean, as he continued to inscribe them. Patrick ODonnell agrees with this, aware of the presence of transitory texts: Yet, there are moments in the works of the high-modernist authors I have mentioned that work beyondà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that rupture its bonds (ODonnell 34). His example from Faulkner is the way in which some of his novels attempt to shatter the connectionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦bet ween attempting to transcend the past, and being condemned to repeat it (34). This struggle with the past no longer seems to be an issue once Faulkner writes Absalom, Absalom! although it had been a focus of his earlier novel, The Sound and the Fury. ODonnell agrees that the later works of William Faulkner present more significant breaks from modernism, suggesting that Go Down, Moses is actually a postmodern rewrite of Absalom, Absalom! (36). However, Faulkners work after that became much more conservative, reverting to the modernist tendencies which he displayed at the beginning of his career. Even a quick reading of Absalom, Absalom! in comparison to Faulkners early novels reveals large differences between the styles. Much like his presentations of characters in previous novels, Faulkner puts elements of himself into his characters; however, in this novel, he purposely employs a self-reflexive concentration in order to create metafiction. It is here that Faulkner stops concerning himself with epistemology and instead with ontology. Faulkner operates the text differently in Absalom, Absalom! in the way that he exerts absolute control over every aspect of the story and creates a commentary on language and fiction. ODonnell refers to Faulkner not as the author of the text of Absalom, Absalom! but as the unseen drop that falls into a pool of water and gives rise to a series of ripples, borrowing from Quentins own words in the novel (Weinstein 31). In other words, he becomes the catalyst for the things that naturally occur. Faulkner puts enough of himself into the novel that e verything he has put into place takes over for him. From this, he no longer stresses or frets over the futility of language; instead, he allows it to take over. The metafictional aspect of Absalom, Absalom! lies in the unique structure and writing style. Unlike his previous endeavors, Faulkner dares to tell a story within the story a story about storytelling. The act of telling a story is artistic because the narrator imposes his or her own will upon it, and it is therefore subjective as well. Previously he is unaware of the subjective nature of language, and now he not only accepts it, but he employs it as well (his primary narrator has a subjective viewpoint unlike what he has done previously). His approach in this novel allows him to have fun with it, thus achieving postmodern status and completing his Lacanian development. Examples of the metafictional aspects in the novel appear most often during the sections focusing on or narrated by Quentin and Mr. Compson. In chapter four, Mr. Compson tells his son, people too as we are, but victims of a different circumstance, simpler and therefore, integer for integer, larger, more heroic and the figures therefore more heroic too, not dwarfed and involved but distinct, uncomplexà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦author and victim too of a thousand homicides and a thousand copulationsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Perhaps you are right. Perhaps any more light than this would be too much for it (Faulkner 90). This is perhaps the most problematic examples of metafiction in the novel because of its focus. While, indeed, it involves Mr. Compson commenting on literature through criticizing a story, it is also taking a Modernists perspective. Faulkner, through Compson, is calling for a return to myth, arguing that the mythological stories of the past are uncomplex and do not suffer from the ambiguity tha t plagues modern literature. This focus on the importance of myths is a common concentration of modernist writers, as is the call to use these stories and make them new. Likewise, Compson seems to be hinting at the significance of this declaration and its symbolism rather than being direct about his point, and implication is the Modernists way of implementing metafiction. The only redeeming factor of the speech lies in his final words, using perhaps to signify his uncertainty, therefore offering a postmodern, skeptical perspective and rejecting absolute truth. The fact that the characters are actively telling the story of Sutpen and commenting on it at the same time is somewhat postmodern, as it is including and drawing attention to the author within the story. There are also times when the narrative from a character goes on for such a long time that the reader forgets who is telling the story, and at this point, the presence of Faulkner as a narrator begins to become more evident. It is also then that comments such as the speech from Mr. Compson take on new and deeper meaning, as the reader begins to associate Faulkner with these ideas more so than the characters. Another more complicated example of metafiction appears again in chapter four, as Mr. Compson says: We have a few old mouth-to-mouth tales; we exhume from old trunks and boxes and drawers letters without salutation or signature, in which men and women who once lived and breathed are now merely initials or nicknames out of some now incomprehensible affection which sound to us like Sanskrit or Chocktaw; we see dimly people, the people in whose living blood and seed we ourselves lay dormant and waiting, in this shadowy attenuation of time possessing now heroic proportions, performing their actsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦impervious to time and inexplicable. (Faulkner 102-103) Faulkner, once again through the mouth of Mr. Compson, is commenting on the state of literature, but more importantly, the uncertainty that literature creates as it all returns to mythology. As he suggests, we as readers have to realize that every story that is told is merely a representation of another, and each is also a mere representation of reality. This also gets back to Faulkners problem with language it never says what you want it to mean. However, it seems now that he has arrived at a fix for this problem The character of Judith, when discussing the story, remarks that words are mere scratches without meaning but it doesnt matter that it is so (Faulkner 131). This differs from the perspective of earlier novels characters because Judith both comes to terms with the meaninglessness of language and decides that it is no longer problematic for her. When asked if she wants Miss Rosa to read the letter, Judith replies, Yesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Or destroy it. As you like. Read it if you like or dont read it if you like. Because you make so little impression, you see (Faulkner 130). Clearly Judith recognizes the futility of language, but she also overcomes the problem, caring not whether Rosa reads the letter or not, because it will not make much of a difference either way. According to Tebbetts, Postmodernists see human attempts to describe and establish truth not only as futile but even as destructive (Tebbetts 131). In other words, if language is strictly symbolic, then it cannot lead us to truth . This comes from a poststructuralist view that truth is a transcendent signifier and does not exist (Lewis 96). The novel embraces this, and Faulkner no longer struggles with the uncertainty of language. Some critics see the novel as having a pattern of uncertainty, which is visible through its use of words like perhaps and maybe. Faulkner had been rejecting this in his earlier novels, but he is finally embracing it here. Faulkner also chooses to utilize the metafiction to inform the reader about his Lacanian journey with language. Lacan says that when the individual is able to split and repress a part of itself, it enters the symbolic realm. The subject becomes aware of its absent center but is driven by desire to fill the void of absence. For Sutpen in Absalom, Absalom! Faulkners momentary stand-in for the duration of this story his enlightenment moment occurs in Chapter Seven, when he is turned away at the planters house (Duvall and Abadie 47). Faulkner, looking back on the past, looks at Sutpen in his Mirror Stage and shines light on his own. Before this moment, Quentin says that Sutpen was no more conscious of his appearanceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ or of the possibility that anyone else would be that he was of his skin (Faulkner 185). At this point, Sutpen has evolved into the Symbolic Stage, just as Faulkner does in his earlier novels. Faulkners style in the novel is more oral than literary, and the novel flows through thoughts and character dialogue that often seems like Faulkner himself is orally relating the story to his listeners. Critic Conrad Aiken agrees, calling his unique style grossly overelaborate and grammatically annoying (Aiken 135). However, Aiken claims that this proves Faulkners Modernist streak, which is, as proven thus far, shortsighted since Absalom, Absalom! is the authors most postmodern book. What he achieves through this style is the defamiliarization of language, blurring the boundaries of literature. It is these lengthy, seemingly never-ending sentences in the novel that reflect Faulkners aims. Likewise, he also enacts a tactic of delayed disclosure through this approach, starting a section of a story and abruptly stopping to digress onto something else. This way in which he withholds the points and meaning of his sentences, information about characters, and the continuations of half-finis hed stories is essentially Lacanian. A characterization of Faulkners novel as either modern or postmodern requires understanding of what it means to be a postmodern piece of fiction. Postmodern literature is often perceived as a reaction to Modernism, which numerous authors, poets, and scholars worried was becoming increasingly too conventional and traditional. Likewise, they often saw Modernism as an elitist form of writing, since it was usually difficult and obscure. They cited the many complex literary references as a source of this, and suggested that Modernism was catering only to the highly educated because of these references. Postmodernism, in response, frequently involves pop cultural references, including those to other postmodern works, popular art, television shows, politics, well-known historical occurrences, and movies. Postmodernism is also often jumbled with fragmentation, but the use of fragmentation is much more severe than in Modernism, as there is sometimes no clear plot, characters sometimes seem po intless, the story is broken up and confused (often beyond repair). This extreme level of fragmentation is often used to make the point that literature is often more about what is under the surface, and that knowledge of a novels plot does not guarantee that a reader has gotten all meaning from the work. Even Faulkners avant-garde nature and separation from Modernism does not develop into what postmodern literature is known for. In order to answer the question of where Faulkner falls in the spectrum of modern and postmodern literature, one must turn to scholarship that identifies obvious postmodernism and determine if Faulkner lives up to the standards. Barry Lewis, author of Postmodernism and Literature, provides a great description of postmodernism as it applies to literature. He purports that the literature that best falls into this category was written between 1960 and 1990, and that anything before is transitory (Lewis 96). He suggests that the most important elements of postmodernity are temporal disorder, pastiche, comfortableness with fragmentation, looseness of association, paranoia, vicious circles, and language disorder (95-105). Likewise, Lewis also brings Jacques Derridas concept of play as a postmodernism technique. Instead of the modernist quest for meaning in a world of chaos, the postmodern author denies, often playfully, the possibility of meaning (98). As a result, the postmodern novel is often a parody of the modernist quest. Within Faulkners works, there are elements of each of these characteristics, but they all seem to appear faintly and fleetingly. For example, temporal disorder is overtly obvious in The Sound and the Fury because Faulkner blurs the line between all time past and present are hard to distinguish. However, as Lewis would agree, Faulkner does not achieve the degree of disorder associated with postmodernist fiction. Instead of recognizing that history repeats itself and that there are definite concrete moments in time, Postmodernists rather make all time vague and parody other works obsession with time (98). Faulkners Quentin in The Sound and the Fury would have been very Modernist in this category, since his preoccupation with time is ultimately part of what destroys him. However, Absalom, Absalom! removes this worry completely, being completely unconcerned about the passage of time since it does not matter. In fact, the novels structure, constant ly shifting tenses between present and past ever so seamlessly, is postmodern. Therefore, some of these postmodern qualities appear in the novel, but others do not. Another important aspect of postmodern literature that Lewis points out is pastiche, which literally means to combine and paste together multiple elements. Pastiche, then, arises from the frustration that everything has been done beforepostmodernist writers tend to pluck existing styles higgledy-piggledy from the reservoir of literary history, and match them with little tact. This explains why many contemporary novels borrow the clothes of different forms (Lewis 99). Although there are some critics who suggest that this is part of Faulkners repertoire, arguing that he employs this in Absalom, Absalom! there does not seem to be enough evidence to prove that he is actively making the novel parodic. Indeed, there are clearly elements within the story that suggest that Faulkner had the classic Southern gothic novel in his heard while writing it, such as the final conversation between Shreve and Quentin at the end: Now I want you to tell me just one thing more. Why do you hate the South? I dont hate it, Quentin said, quickly, at once, immediately, I dont hate it' (Faulkner 395). Quentin, who often represents Faulkner, may be repressing something, and it very well could be a shared feeling of Faulkner; however, there has not been enough legitimate evidence or scholarship to prove this relationship. Therefore, the novel is not a parody, which hurts its chances at being classified as a postmodern novel. Modernists treat fragmentation and subjectivity as existential crises a problem that must be solved, which their literature attempts to do. Postmodernists, however, believe that this issue is insurmountable, and the only reactionary action that is worthwhile is to play with the chaotic tendencies. In postmodern literature, playfulness becomes the major focus, thus making any order or incontrovertible truth highly unlikely. Faulkner, at least in his early works and Absalom, Absalom! does not seem to venture very deep into this playfulness. Indeed, there is definitely a presence of this in Absalom, Absalom! but it never reaches the extremeness that other major postmodern works achieve. Compared to a work like Kurt Vonneguts Slaughterhouse-Five, Faulkners fiction does not stand up in terms of where it falls on the modern/postmodern scale. The first chapter of Vonneguts book begins by saying, All this happened, more or lessIve changed all the names. I really did go back to DresdenI went back there with an old war buddy, Bernardà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Vonnegut 1). The author blurs the line between where his influence ends and where the narrator (who is, in other words, understood to be separate from the author) begins. The first chapter seems more like a preface by the author, or a later comment on his novel that should come after the text; instead, Vonneguts first course of action is to set himself up as both the author and narrator. It is clearly postmodern because he is forthright about it instead of implying the blurred line. I would hate to tell you what this lousy little book cost me in money and anxiety and time. When I got